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| Method | BMI (Body Mass Index) | Hydrodensitometry (Underwater Weighing) | Anthropometry (Skinfold Measurements) | Near-Infrared Interactance | Dual Energy X-Ray Absorption (DEXA) | BIA (Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis) | Tanita BIA (Leg-to-Leg) |
| Procedure | Weight and height are measured then BMI is computed using a simple formula or chart. | Subject is weighed
then immersed in a tank of water while fully exhaling.
Measurements of immersed weight are repeated as many as 5 times and then averaged. |
Skinfold thickness is
measured by grasping the skin and underlying tissue, shaking it to exclude
any muscle and pinching it with a caliper.
Measurements are taken at 1, 3, 5, 7 or 21 locations and entered into a formula. Multiple readings at multiple sites improve accuracy. |
A fiber-optic probe
connected to a digital analyzer indirectly measures tissue types at
various body sizes to a depth of about 1 cm.
NIR data is combined with height, weight, frame size, and athletic level to estimate percent body fat. Multiple readings at multiple sites improve accuracy. |
Based on a
three-compartment model that divides the body into total body mineral,
fat-free soft (lean) mass and fat tissue mass.
A whole body scanner reads bone and soft tissue mass simultaneously. Scanner passes over reclining subject once collecting data at .5 cm intervals. |
With traditional BIA a person lies down and spot electrodes (with electrolyte gel) are placed on a hard and bare foot. The resistance of a small electrical signal is measured as it passes through the body. This measurement is entered into a formula along with height, weight and gender to determine lean and fat mass. | Weight and impedance
are measured in a single step while subject stands barefoot on the device.
Measurements are combined with subject's gender, height and age (which are programmed into the device) to determine body fat based on multi-ethnic, diverse population formulas that have been highly researched and validated. |
| Test Time | 1-2 minutes | 15-60 minutes | 10-20 minutes | Under 5 minutes | 10-20 minutes | 5 to 10 minutes | 30 seconds |
| Subject Comfort | No discomfort. | Difficult for subjects who dislike submersion or have difficulty expelling all the air in their lungs. | Subject must be "pinched" at exposed areas on various parts of their body. | Low discomfort, primarily with single site method. | Safe and non-invasive, requiring only that a subject must lie still throughout the procedure. | Electrolyte gel can be uncomfortable. Subject must lie down for procedure. | No discomfort. |
| Technician Skill | Low | High | High | Moderate | High | Moderate to low | Low |
| Subject Cost | Very low | High | Low | Low to moderate | High | Low | Low |
| Equipment Cost | Very low | Very high | Low to moderate | Moderate to high | Very high | Moderate to high | Low to high |
| Acceptance | Used in clinical
settings as simple indicator of obesity.
National Institutes of Health and World Health Organization have developed basic BMI screening guidelines. |
The traditional reference method for body composition research. | Widely used due to low
cost of equipment and portability.
Over 3,500 equations have been validated to account for differences in gender, age, and ethnic groups. To save time single readings are often taken providing only a rough estimate of body fat. |
Popular outside the
laboratory because it is simple, fast, non-invasive and relatively
inexpensive.
While single-site measurement at the biceps is often used, numerous sources report that more research is needed to substantiate the validity, accuracy and applicability of this method. |
Quickly moving the
laboratory setting into clinical studies.
Measures fat distribution throughout the entire body in a single scan. Originally used to measure bone density. |
Long-accepted because
of simplicity, low cost, high reproducibility and non-invasiveness.
New BIA techniques (phase angle and multi-frequency) are under development for estimating hydration and intra/extra-cellular breakdown. Additional research is needed to refine those method's accuracy in determining body fat percentage. |
Offers advantages of
traditional BIA as well as greater ease of use, speed and portability.
Quickly being accepted in professional settings including hospitals, labs, health clubs, weight loss clinics and doctors offices. |
| Reliability and Reproducibility | Current guidelines do
not differentiate for gender, ethnicity, or age.
Can be misleading for non-standard body size and shapes, athletes who are overweight but have low body fat, and for sedentary individuals who may have normal BMI but high body fat. |
Readings may vary due
to changes in hydration and proportion of bone minerals.
Requires multiple readings that are then averaged. If remaining air in lungs is estimated, errors can occur. |
Precision depends
heavily on the skill of the technician.
Accuracy is also affected by which sites are measured, the number of sites measured, the taking of duplicate readings, the quality of calipers, and the equation used. Calipers developed for home use (very inexpensive) are unreliable. The more obese a subject, the more difficult it is to grasp the skinfold correctly. |
High degree of error
has occurred with very lean and obese people.
Amount of pressure applied to fiber optic probe, skin color and hydration levels may be sources of error. Low number of readings can increase error. Sold by only one manufacturer. Technician determines fitness level (body type) as in other methods. Measurements should be taken under constant and controlled conditions to minimize variations. |
More reliable than
other measurements due to three compartment model, no need to account for
air mass in lungs, and accounts for variations in the distribution of body
fat.
High reliability and measures fat distribution with just one measurement. |
Very high
reproducibility and accuracy given proper electrode placement.
Measurements should be taken under constant and controlled conditions to minimize variations caused by hydration level. Accuracy is heavily dependent on type of equation used. Most BIA research continues to use underwater weighing as reference. |
Very
high reproducibility not dependent on technician training,
Equations and equipment validated by peer-reviewed research. As with all measurements, analysis should be done under consistent conditions.Uses DEXA as reference method for higher accuracy. |
OTHER DEVELOPING TECHNOLOGIES
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(MRI)
Magnetic field "excites" water and fat molecules producing
a measurable signal which is then measured and analyzed.
A person lies within the magnet as a computer
scans the body and develop high quality images showing
the amount of fat and where it is distributed. Images
then must be analyzed by a technician to determine final
results. Very useful in giving a ratio of intra-abdominal
fat to extra-abdominal fat. While very accurate, high
cost of equipment and analysis limits use.
Total Body Electrical Conductivity
(TOBEC)
Individual lies in a cylinder that generates a weak electromagnetic
field. The strength of the field depends on
the electrolytes found in the persons water. About 10
readings are needed to estimate lean body mass.
Provides highly accurate body fat estimates but use is
limited due to the cost of equipment and analysis.
Computed Tomography (CT)
CT produces cross-sectional scans of the body.
Photons are sent through the body to a detector. As the
beam rotates a persons data is collected, stored and
applied to algorithms to build images that determine
body composition. CT is very useful in giving a ratio
of intra-abdominal fat to extra-abdominal fat. Use is
limited due to high cost of equipment and operation.
Air Displacement (Bod Pod)
Subject sits for 20 seconds in a capsule during which
time sensors measure how much air is displaced.
Results are based on the same principles as underwater
weighing. Equipment and operation is very expensive.
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